Introduction

Most Protestants are well aware of at least a few of the differences in doctrine and practice between themselves and the Roman Catholic Church. While many could be listed, subjects such as the infallibility of the Pope, veneration of Mary, the nature of the Eucharist, praying to deceased saints, and Purgatory are among the more well know topics of debate. Scores of books have been written on these matters, and although most Protestants would do well to name the specific causes of the reformation, most are at least familiar with its outcome.The reformation, however, was actually the second of the two largest breaches in the Christian world. Five hundred years before Martin Luther nailed his theses to the church door, the Christian Church had already begun to polarize itself into East and West. The latter we know today as Roman Catholicism, the former is the Eastern Orthodox Church. Below I will present Eastern Orthodoxy in light of Roman Catholicism - for they share much with them.

Excursus: The First Major Schism - Coptic (Alexandrian) Orthodoxy

Prior to the major east/west schism of AD 1054, a rather large contingent of Oriental Christianity was separated from the rest by the Council of Chalcedon in AD 451. The council met to discuss the Incarnation of Christ and declared that Christ was "one hypostasis in two natures" (i.e., one person who shares two distinct natures). This became standard orthodoxy for Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and Protestant churches from then on. The Coptic (Egyptian) understanding is that Christ is one nature from two natures: "the Logos Incarnate." In this understanding, Christ is from, not in, two natures: full humanity and full divinity.

Chalcedon's decision was rejected by Coptic Orthodox Christians of Egypt and others becoming what is today called the oriental Orthodox Church. Some in the Coptic Orthodox Church believe that their position was misunderstood at the Council of Chalcedon and take great pains to ensure that they are not monophysite (denying the two natures of Christ), but rather miaphysite (one composite/conjoined nature from two). The Coptic Orthodox Church believes that Christ is perfect in His divinity, and He is perfect in His humanity, but His divinity and His humanity were united in one nature called "the nature of the incarnate word", which was reiterated by Saint Cyril of Alexandria. Copts, thus, believe in two natures "human" and "divine" that are united in one hypostasis "without mingling, without confusion, and without alteration". Some believe that perhaps the Council understood the Church correctly, but wanted to exile the Church for its refusal to take part in politics or due to the rivalry between the Bishops of Alexandria and Rome.

There are now over 10 million Coptic Christians in the world and almost every Christian in Egypt is Coptic. They have had much influence in the life of the Church including theological speculation, the monastic movement, catechetical schools, and have suffered much for their faith under Egyptian and Muslim rule.

"The Schism" - Rome vs. Constantinople

Both Eastern and Western Churches participated in the first seven ecumenical counsels, ending with the second council of Nicaea in 787.  These councils were largely responsible for establishing what are now regarded as the fundamentals of the faith. The history of the dividing of Roman Catholicism from Eastern Orthodoxy began with the separation of Rome and Constantinople centuries earlier. By the third century the Roman Empire was divided into eastern and western halves, each segment being under its own emperor. This political separation began the formation of a religious and cultural gulf such that by the ninth century the two groups could barely understand one another’s language much less their traditions. Thus, when Rome announced that it’s Bishop was to be considered supreme pontiff over all the earth, the East naturally responded with rancor. Tensions rose for the next few generations with Popes and Bishops falling in and out of favor on both sides until two issues came together to form a serious conflict.

The disagreement usually designated as being responsible for the schism of 1054, and the full division of the two churches by about 1290, involved Papal supremacy. The specific issue cited for the great split was the addition of the filioque (the statement, “. . . and from the Son,” regarding the procession of the Holy Spirit from God the Father) to the Nicene creed. Although the filioque had come into existence several hundred years earlier, Rome’s editing of the common creed without the permission of any official council was seen as an affront to the entirety of the Eastern Church. When all finally came to a head in 1054, the Patriarch of Constantinople was excommunicated.  Although friendly relations continued for some time between the two entities, this event marked the beginning of the end. Once the Crusades began the issue was brought down to the popular level and the breach became permanent.

Eastern Orthodoxy: Areas of Agreement with Roman Catholicism

 Today East and West agree that God eternally exists as three persons in one essence, that we are saved by faith, that the Bible is the word of God (including the deuterocanonical books or apocrypha), that Christ will return in the future and judge the living and the dead, etc.  As to secondary issues: both are highly ritualistic and symbolic in their services, use images as a focus for worship, venerate Mary, believe in Apostolic succession, hold Church tradition to be necessary for the correct interpretation of the Word of God, etc. However, what truly defines two things is not their similarities but their differences.

Eastern Orthodoxy: Areas of Difference with Roman Catholicism

Even disregarding the complexities of various sects within each tradition and recent doctrinal developments of Roman Catholicism (specifically Vatican II), one may still find several areas of disagreement in both the faith and practice of these two religions.

Faith and Reason

Regarding faith and reason the Orthodox reject the idea that God can be known in any way by human reason. Further, while science and philosophy may be used to lend support to Biblical belief, they are not to be used to prove it.  In contrast, Roman Catholicism has a rich heritage of theologian-philosophers, and places a high value on human reason. Valuing inner revelation over reasoning, Eastern Orthodoxy claims that God is unknowable by logic, but only as a mystery revealed in the hearts of men.  As to God’s revealed nature,  both defend the doctrine of the Trinity, while the addition of the filioque is considered heresy by Eastern Orthodoxy.

Source of Doctrine

Eastern Orthodoxy teaches that the fundamental source of tradition is the Scriptures as understood by with the "divinely inspired Fathers of the Church." Their authority cannot be superseded, altered or ignored. Only the Church as a whole, and any doctrine decided upon in a council, is infallible. But the bishops themselves are not believed to be infallible, nor are they reverenced as such. Roman Catholicism follows the more fluid theory of "doctrinal development."

Christ

While both groups agree on the doctrine of Christ, they disagree on His mission. Roman Catholicism teaches that Christ died to satisfy the Divine requirements of justice against sinful humanity. Eastern Orthodoxy, denying the doctrine of original sin, sees Christ’s death as payment on the ransom held over men by death. The goal of salvation in Eastern Orthodoxy is a kind of deification of man - a restoration to God’s image and purpose for mankind.

The Pope

Roman Catholicism teaches that the Pope is the head of the Church, the successor to the apostle Peter, that he is infallible when speaking ex cathedra, and a host of other authoritative attributes both natural and supernatural. The Pope has “supreme, and universal power over the whole Church,” and the Church’s bishops have “no authority unless united with the Roman Pontiff.” Eastern Orthodoxy rejects the idea of the Bishop of the Church as being over any other. The Orthodox Church teaches that all bishops are equal. Further, no doctrinal pronouncements are allowed outside the council of the whole Church. 

The Sacraments

As to the sacraments, some diversity is found even within their similarities. Both bodies recognize seven sacraments, although they differ as to application and explanation. The Orthodox teach that their elements (bread, wine, water, chrism, etc.) become grace-filled by the calling of the Holy Spirit whereas Roman Catholicism believes that the sacraments are effective on account of the priest who acts in the person of Christ.

Eucharist: Orthodoxy teaches that the bread and wine are signs of Christ’s body and blood and in a "mystical" sense as the body and blood of Christ. What the priest and the faithful consume is mysteriously the body and blood of Christ. They receive Him under the forms of bread and wine. The bread and the wine, are the Real Presence of Christ, but it is a holy mystery that the Church does not attempt to define. In Orthodoxy, the bread is mixed with the wine in the chalice and is served by a spoon, as together the bread and the wine are the Body and Blood of Christ.

Baptism: is for the remission of original sin to the Roman Catholic, whereas in Orthodoxy it brings membership to the Church, reception of the Holy Spirit, and forgiveness of sins.

Confirmation: is at the point of belief and baptism in Orthodoxy instead of being separated into different stages. The Orthodox Church links baptism, chrismation ("confirmation" and "chrismation" both mean the giving of the Holy Spirit) and communion.

Penance and confession of sins: may be required by a "confessor" although private confession before God is also acceptable. Penance should only be received by the believer as a means of re-admission to the Church although presently many receive penance for some serious sin before receiving Holy Communion.

Marriage: in Eastern Orthodoxy is unbreakable except by death or adultery and is accepted before ordination, while in Roman Catholicism marriage is not allowed for the ordained and (officially) may not be dissolved for any reason.

Extreme Unction: or anointing the sick, is held off until death for the Roman Catholic, whereas it is administered throughout the life of an Eastern Orthodox believer. 

Most important, however, in Eastern Orthodoxy the sacraments are not seen as meritorious but instead as bringing one into the presence of Christ.  Roman Catholicism views the sacraments as necessary for salvation and the reception of God’s grace.

Mary

Both Orthodox and Roman Catholic believers venerate Mary, hold to her bodily assumption and title, “Mother of God - (theotokos)” The Orthodox, however, deny the Roman Catholic doctrines of her immaculate conception or sinless life. Nor is she seen as mediatrix, although she is prayed to as are other saints.

Icons or Images

As noted earlier, both groups use images to focus their worship. While Roman Catholics may use anything from stained glass windows to statues, the Eastern Orthodox use Icons to depict saints and scenes from Scripture. These are blessed by the Church and believed to be mystically connected to the one whose image is depicted. These are venerated to show respect and unity, but are not worshiped. 

Purgatory

On the subject of death and judgment, the Orthodox reject the idea of Purgatory. Instead, they teach that the dead await resurrection in Hades where they either suffer or glory in their foreseen future.

Other Aspects

Orthodoxy has a tradition of monasticism and strict separation from the world, while Roman Catholicism is increasingly concerned with being active in world affairs. Lastly, in liturgical practice many differences can be listed. The Eastern Orthodox: 

do not have stations of the cross, 

worship toward the East, 

use leavened bread in the Eucharist. 

priests wear beards, and

are allowed to marry (before ordination)

Conclusion

As can be seen by the above comparison, Protestants have much in common with Eastern Orthodoxy while remaining quite dissimilar in as many areas. While agreement on the strict fundamentals of the faith is shared by all three groups, the variants are so large that a reintegration of these faiths is almost incomprehensible. While each may consider the other “Christian” in the sense of historic Christianity, there can be no doubt that the differences far outweigh the similarities.